Al-Khwarizmi (9th c.) → Founded algebra, introduced algorithms, spread Hindu-Arabic numerals and the use of zero.

Jabir ibn Hayyan (8th c.) → Developed chemistry, invented distillation, crystallization, acids.

Al-Razi (9th–10th c.) → Wrote Comprehensive Book on Medicine, discovered alcohol in medicine, distinguished smallpox and measles.

Ibn Sina (10th–11th c.) → Wrote The Canon of Medicine, standard medical textbook for centuries, described contagious diseases, anesthesia, psychology.

Al-Zahrawi (10th–11th c.) → “Father of surgery,” designed 200+ surgical tools, pioneer in stitches and cauterization.

Ibn al-Haytham (10th–11th c.) → Founded optics, explained vision, invented the camera obscura, promoted the scientific method.

Al-Biruni (10th–11th c.) → Measured Earth’s radius, wrote on astronomy, geology, and pharmacology, pioneered comparative religion.

Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (13th c.) → Developed Tusi couple (planetary motion model), built Maragha Observatory, improved trigonometry.

Ibn al-Nafis (13th c.) → Discovered pulmonary (lung) circulation centuries before William Harvey.

Al-Idrisi (12th c.) → Created the Tabula Rogeriana, one of the most detailed world maps of the Middle Ages.

Banu Musa Brothers (9th c.) → Wrote Book of Ingenious Devices, created early robotics, automata, fountains, and trick machines.

Al-Jazari (12th–13th c.) → Wrote Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, invented robots, water clocks, and crankshaft mechanisms.

Mariam al-Asturlabiyya (10th c.) → Skilled maker of astrolabes, advanced astronomical navigation tools, one of the earliest known female engineers.