Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon on this day, changing the face of Rome.

On January 10, 49 BC, Julius Caesar made the fateful decision to cross the Rubicon river with his army, an act that would change the course of Roman history. This small stream marked the boundary between Caesar's province of Cisalpine Gaul and Italy proper. By law, it was forbidden for a Roman general to lead troops across this border, as doing so was considered an act of treason.

Caesar's decision to cross the Rubicon came after years of growing tension between him and his political rivals in Rome, particularly Pompey and the Senate. They had ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome, where he would likely face prosecution. Faced with this ultimatum, Caesar chose to march on Rome instead.

The impact of this decision on Rome was immediate and far-reaching. As news of Caesar's advance spread, panic gripped the city. Pompey and many senators fled Rome, believing the exaggerated rumors of the size of Caesar's force. This mass exodus effectively handed control of the city to Caesar without a fight.

Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon marked the beginning of a civil war that would last for several years. It pitted Caesar against Pompey and the senatorial faction, ultimately leading to Caesar's victory and his rise to power as dictator of Rome. This conflict would reshape the Roman political landscape and effectively end the Roman Republic, paving the way for the establishment of the Roman Empire.

One significant consequence of Caesar's actions was that it denied him the opportunity for a formal triumph in Rome. A triumph was a grand celebratory parade granted to victorious generals, but it required them to lay down their command before entering the city. By crossing the Rubicon with his army, Caesar forfeited his right to this honor for his victories in Gaul.

The phrase "crossing the Rubicon" has since entered common usage as an idiom meaning to pass a point of no return or to take an irrevocable step. Caesar himself is said to have uttered the famous words "The die is cast" (Alea iacta est) as he made his decision, though the exact phrasing and language used are debated by historians.

Caesar's bold move demonstrated his political and military acumen. With only one legion at his immediate disposal, he managed to outmaneuver his opponents through swift action and psychological warfare. His capture of Ariminum (modern Rimini) shortly after crossing the Rubicon further solidified his position and sent shockwaves through the Roman political establishment.

The crossing of the Rubicon remains one of the most pivotal moments in ancient history. It set in motion a chain of events that would not only transform Rome but also shape the future of European civilization.

These "on this day" posts are inspired by my love of the greatest minds of the Western canon. It is in this spirit that I post these tidbits for the Bitcoin community as a way to bring beauty and knowledge to the world.

Hey Bitcoin Readers!

It’s Jane Austen’s 250th birthday this year. I’ll be rereading all six of her novels along with some of her other writings. Want to join me?

Schedule (in order of publication date):

1. January/February: Sense and Sensibility

2. March/April: Pride and Prejudice

3. May: Mansfield Park

4. June: Juvenilia

5. July/August: Emma

6. September: Sanditon/The Watson’s

7. October: Northanger Abbey

8. November: Persuasion

9. December: Biography by Claire Tomalin

Let me know if you’d like to join an online meetup to discuss her works to celebrate with me.

Adopting Bitcoin in El Salvador this year is at a gorgeous venture with both inside and outdoor spaces. Although the talks will be indoors, there are plenty of places and things going on outdoors as well.

On this date, October 13, in 54 AD, the Roman Emperor Claudius died, and his adopted son Nero ascended to power, marking the beginning of one of the most notorious reigns in Roman history.

Nero became emperor at just 16 years old, initially under the guidance of his mother Agrippina and the famed Stoic philosopher Seneca, who served as his advisor. For a few years, Seneca and the Praetorian Prefect Burrus managed to keep Nero's excesses in check, and the empire experienced relative stability. However, as Nero grew older and more independent, his darker tendencies began to surface.

Nero's rule became synonymous with cruelty, extravagance, and tyranny. He is often remembered for his lavish lifestyle, throwing opulent parties and spending vast sums on his personal pleasures, including elaborate architectural projects like his Golden House, which was a palace filled with immense luxury.

Nero’s thirst for artistic glory led him to perform in public, something considered beneath an emperor, as he fancied himself a great poet, singer, and charioteer. His growing paranoia led to a series of brutal acts, including the execution of his own mother, Agrippina, and the forced suicides of his former advisor Seneca and other prominent figures in Rome.

One of the most infamous events of Nero's reign was the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, which devastated much of the city. Rumors circulated that Nero himself had started the fire to clear space for his Golden House, and though these claims are debated, his reaction to the disaster only further damaged his reputation.

To deflect blame, Nero targeted the Christians, using them as scapegoats for the fire. This led to the first major persecution of Christians in Roman history, during which many were brutally executed, including being burned alive or torn apart by wild animals in public spectacles.

Nero's reign ended in chaos and revolt. His cruelty and neglect of the empire’s governance ultimately led to a widespread uprising. Declared a public enemy by the Senate, Nero fled Rome and, facing certain death, took his own life in 68 AD, marking the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

Though his reign began with promise under the influence of Seneca, Nero's legacy is forever tainted by his extravagance, cruelty, and persecution, leaving him as one of the most infamous figures in Roman history.

The Roman writer, Suetonius, has a interesting read on Nero and all of his antics in The Twelve Caesars. You can read it online for free here: https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/6391/pg6391-images.html

These "on this day" posts are inspired by my love of the greatest minds of the Western canon. It is in this spirit that I post these tidbits for the #bitcoin community as a way to bring beauty and knowledge to the world.

Thanks for the mention! I am so happy these posts and my love for Western Civilization are being appreciated. I have such joy in putting them together!

On this day in 1940, the incredible Paleolithic cave Lascaux was discovered.

Four teenagers in France made the extraordinary discovery that would forever change our understanding of prehistoric art.

While walking through the woods near the village of Montignac in the Dordogne region, their dog fell into a hole. Upon investigating, the boys stumbled upon the entrance to a cave that would soon be known as Lascaux.

Inside, they found stunningly preserved paintings, made by Paleolithic humans over 17,000 years ago. The walls of the cave were adorned with vivid depictions of animals, including horses, bulls, stags, and even abstract symbols, all rendered in red, black, and ochre hues.

The Lascaux paintings are among the most significant prehistoric art discoveries in the world. They offer a rare glimpse into the creative abilities and beliefs of early humans. The paintings demonstrate not only artistic skill but also a deep connection with the natural world. Many of the animals depicted are no longer found in Europe, suggesting that the cave paintings also serve as a record of the changing environment and species over millennia. Lascaux is considered a masterpiece of prehistoric art and is often referred to as the "Sistine Chapel of prehistory."

When Lascaux Cave was first discovered in 1940, the dating of the paintings was uncertain, as methods for accurately determining the age of prehistoric art were still developing. Initially, experts estimated the artwork to be around 15,000 years old based on comparisons with other known Paleolithic sites. However, as dating techniques evolved, particularly with the advent of radiocarbon dating in the mid-20th century, the estimated age of the Lascaux paintings was pushed back further. By analyzing organic materials, such as charcoal used in the pigments, and studying the stratigraphy of the cave, researchers eventually dated the paintings to approximately 17,000 years ago, placing them in the Upper Paleolithic period, specifically the Magdalenian culture. This shift in understanding reflects the progress of archaeological science, which continues to refine our knowledge of prehistoric human activity.

There are many theories about the meaning behind the Lascaux paintings. One widely accepted idea is that the paintings were created as part of a hunting ritual. According to this theory, early humans believed that depicting animals on the walls of the cave would bring them good fortune in the hunt. The detailed and dynamic representation of animals may have been intended to ensure the survival and prosperity of the group. Some researchers have suggested that the paintings were part of a shamanistic ritual, where the artist acted as a mediator between the human world and the spirit world. This idea is supported by the placement of certain images deep within the cave, in areas that would have been difficult to access, implying a sacred or ceremonial purpose.

Another theory suggests that the cave paintings represent early humans' attempts to understand and organize the world around them. The repeated depictions of specific animals may have held symbolic meaning, possibly reflecting their importance to the survival of the group. Some scholars propose that the paintings could be an early form of storytelling or even an ancient calendar, used to track the migration patterns of animals.

The images found in Lascaux Cave are primarily of animals, with over 600 depictions covering the walls of its chambers. The most prominent creatures are horses, which make up nearly half of all the animals depicted. In addition to horses, large bulls and stags feature prominently, along with aurochs, an extinct species of wild cattle. There are also bison, ibex, and even a few representations of what may be rhinoceroses and felines.

These animals are shown in dynamic poses, often in groups, suggesting movement or perhaps a narrative of a hunt. The artists used a variety of techniques, such as shading and outlining, to give the animals depth and life, employing natural curves of the cave walls to enhance the illusion of movement. The paintings are vivid, made with pigments like red ochre, yellow, black charcoal, and manganese, which allowed for a rich palette that has endured for thousands of years.

One of the more intriguing aspects of the Lascaux paintings is the near absence of human figures. Unlike many other Paleolithic sites where humans are depicted in simple or abstract forms, Lascaux contains only a single, enigmatic human figure. This figure, crudely drawn in comparison to the detailed animals, appears to be a man with the head of a bird or wearing a bird mask, lying near a wounded bison. The lack of human figures has led to much speculation about why early artists focused almost exclusively on animals. Some suggest that humans were deliberately left out due to a taboo on depicting the human form, or that the cave’s purpose was more spiritual or symbolic, with animals representing totemic or mythological elements. The focus on animals, rather than humans, emphasizes the significance of these creatures in the lives of early humans, potentially reflecting their role in hunting, survival, and possibly even belief systems.

Although the true meaning of the Lascaux paintings may never be fully understood, their discovery has provided invaluable insights into the cognitive and creative capacities of early humans. The paintings remain a powerful testament to humanity's enduring desire to communicate, create, and make sense of the world around us.

These "on this day" posts are inspired by my love of the greatest minds of the Western canon. It is in this spirit that I post these tidbits for the #bitcoin community as a way to bring beauty and knowledge to the world.

The Battle of Actium, fought on this day 31 BCE, was a defining moment in Roman history, marking the end of the Roman Republic and paving the way for the establishment of the Roman Empire.

The events leading up to this battle were deeply connected to the power dynamics within the Second Triumvirate and the complex relationships between its key figures.

The Second Triumvirate, formed in 43 BCE, was an uneasy alliance between three powerful men: Octavian, the adopted son and heir of Julius Caesar; Mark Antony, one of Caesar’s most trusted generals; and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, a lesser but influential figure.

Their partnership was initially successful in consolidating power and avenging Caesar's assassination, but it was inherently unstable due to their competing ambitions. Over time, tensions grew, particularly between Octavian and Antony, as each sought to dominate the Roman world.

Mark Antony’s involvement with Cleopatra VII, the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, further complicated matters. Cleopatra had previously allied with Julius Caesar, with whom she had a son, Caesarion.

After Caesar’s assassination, she formed a close and politically charged relationship with Antony, which became the subject of scandal and propaganda. Octavian seized upon this, portraying Antony as a traitor to Rome, seduced by the exotic queen of Egypt.

The relationship between Antony and Cleopatra was not merely a personal affair; it was a political alliance that threatened Octavian’s ambitions.

As the rivalry between Octavian and Antony intensified, the stage was set for a final confrontation. The decisive moment came at the Battle of Actium, where Octavian’s forces, commanded by his trusted general Agrippa, faced Antony and Cleopatra’s combined fleet.

The battle was fought off the western coast of Greece, and despite Antony’s naval strength, the outcome was disastrous for him and Cleopatra. Antony’s forces were outmaneuvered and overwhelmed, and in the chaos, Cleopatra’s fleet retreated, leading to a complete rout.

The defeat at Actium spelled the end for Antony and Cleopatra. They fled to Egypt, where, faced with inevitable defeat, they both committed suicide. With their deaths, Octavian emerged as the undisputed ruler of the Roman world.

He soon took the title of Augustus, becoming the first Roman Emperor and marking the end of the Roman Republic.

The Battle of Actium was not just a military victory; it was a turning point that reshaped the course of history. By defeating Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian secured his position as the leader of Rome and laid the foundation for an empire that would dominate the Mediterranean world for centuries.

The battle also marked the end of Egypt as an independent power, as it was absorbed into the Roman Empire, bringing an end to the Hellenistic period that had begun with Alexander the Great. Thus, the outcome of Actium changed the trajectory of Western history, establishing a new order under Roman imperial rule.

These "on this day" posts are inspired by my love of the greatest minds of the Western canon. It is in this spirit that I post these tidbits for the #bitcoin community as a way to bring beauty and knowledge to the world. #Romanhistory #ancientrome #rome

Happy Birthday, James Henry Breasted!

James Henry Breasted was a pioneering American archaeologist and historian, renowned for his contributions to our understanding of ancient Egypt and the broader history of the ancient Near East. Born in 1865 in Rockford, Illinois, Breasted became one of the most influential figures in the early 20th century in the fields of archaeology and Egyptology, fundamentally shaping the way we view ancient civilizations.

Breasted's academic journey began with studies in Hebrew and Greek, but his interest soon turned to Egyptology, leading him to study at the University of Berlin under the guidance of the eminent German Egyptologist Adolf Erman. He earned his Ph.D. in 1894, becoming the first American to receive a doctorate in Egyptology. This marked the beginning of a career dedicated to uncovering and interpreting the history of the ancient world.

One of Breasted's most significant contributions was his work on the *Ancient Records of Egypt*, a comprehensive five-volume collection of Egyptian texts, translated and annotated by Breasted himself. This monumental work, published between 1906 and 1907, provided scholars with unprecedented access to primary sources from ancient Egypt, ranging from royal decrees to religious hymns. Breasted's meticulous translations and insightful commentary helped establish a deeper understanding of Egyptian civilization, its governance, religious practices, and societal structure.

Breasted's impact extended beyond his work on Egypt. He was instrumental in expanding the study of the broader ancient Near East, a region he famously referred to as the "Fertile Crescent." In his 1916 book *Ancient Times: A History of the Early World*, Breasted introduced this term, which has since become a staple in historical and archaeological discourse. The concept of the Fertile Crescent highlighted the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations in this region, including Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Levant, emphasizing their role as the cradle of human civilization.

Another of Breasted's major contributions was his establishment of the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago in 1919. The institute became a leading center for the study of ancient Near Eastern civilizations, combining archaeological research with the study of ancient languages, history, and culture. Under Breasted's leadership, the Oriental Institute conducted numerous expeditions to Egypt, Iraq, and other parts of the Near East, uncovering important archaeological sites and artifacts that have enriched our understanding of ancient history.

Breasted's work was not only academic but also sought to make the history of the ancient world accessible to a broader audience. He was a gifted writer and lecturer, and his popular books, such as *A History of Egypt* and *The Dawn of Conscience*, brought the ancient past to life for many readers, emphasizing the enduring significance of these early civilizations.

Breasted's influence on the field of archaeology and historical knowledge is profound. He played a crucial role in the development of Egyptology as a scientific discipline and broadened the scope of historical study to include the interconnected civilizations of the ancient Near East. His efforts laid the foundation for future research and inspired generations of scholars to explore the rich history of the ancient world. James Henry Breasted's legacy endures in the continued exploration and understanding of the civilizations that shaped the course of human history.

These #onthisday posts are inspired by my love of the greatest minds of the #Westerncanon. It is in this spirit that I post these tidbits for the #bitcoin community as a way to bring beauty and knowledge to the world.

#history #homeschool #education #classicaleducation